Birkhoff, George David

George David Birkhoff, (born March 21, 1884, Overisel, Michigan, U.S.—died November 12, 1944, Cambridge, Massachusetts), foremost American mathematician of the early 20th century, who formulated the ergodic theorem.

Birkhoff attended the Lewis Institute (now the Illinois Institute of Technology) in Chicago from 1896 to 1902 and then spent a year at the University of Chicago before switching to Harvard University in 1903 (A.B., 1905; A.M., 1906). He returned to Chicago in 1905 and received a doctorate there in 1907.

Birkhoff taught at the University of Wisconsin (1907–09), Princeton University (1909–12), and Harvard (1912–44). He was an extraordinarily stimulating lecturer and director of research. By the mid 20th century many of the leading American mathematicians either had written their doctoral dissertations under his direction or had done postdoctoral research with him. He edited the Transactions of the American Mathematical Society from 1921 to 1924 and served as the organization’s president from 1925 to 1926.

Birkhoff conducted research mainly in mathematical analysis and its application to dynamics. In the latter he was especially influenced by the work of the French mathematician Henri Poincaré. His dissertation and much of his later work dealt with the solutions of ordinary differential equations and the associated expansions of arbitrary functions. Using matrix methods, he also contributed fundamentally to the theory of difference equations.

In 1913 Birkhoff proved Poincaré’s “last geometric theorem.” The theorem, which Poincaré announced without proof in 1912 shortly before he died, confirms the existence of an infinite number of periodic solutions for the restricted three-body problem—i.e., stable orbits involving three (solar) bodies. Birkhoff’s proof was a striking achievement and one that brought him immediate worldwide acclaim. In 1931, stimulated by the recent work of John von Neumann and others, he published his formulation of the ergodic theorem. The theorem, which transformed the Maxwell-Boltzmann ergodic hypothesis of the kinetic theory of gases into a rigorous principle through the use of Lebesgue measure theory (see analysis: Measure theory), has important applications to modern analysis. Birkhoff developed his own theory of gravitation which was published shortly before he died, and he constructed a mathematical theory of aesthetics, which he applied to art, music, and poetry. All this internationally renowned creative work stimulated further scientific discoveries.

Birkhoff’s works include Relativity and Modern Physics (1923), Dynamical Systems (1928), Aesthetic Measure (1933), and a textbook on elementary geometry, Basic Geometry (1941; with Ralph Beatley).