Neural Stem Cell

neural stem cell, largely undifferentiated cell originating in the central nervous system. Neural stem cells (NSCs) have the potential to give rise to offspring cells that grow and differentiate into neurons and glial cells (non-neuronal cells that insulate neurons and enhance the speed at which neurons send signals).

For years it was thought that the brain was a closed, fixed system. Even the renowned Spanish neuroanatomist Santiago Ramón y Cajal, who won the Nobel Prize for Physiology in 1906 for establishing the neuron as the fundamental cell of the brain, was unaware of the mechanisms of neurogenesis (the formation of nerve tissue) during his otherwise remarkable career. There were only a handful of discoveries, primarily in rats, birds, and primates, in the latter half of the 20th century that hinted at the regenerative capability of brain cells. During this time, scientists assumed that once the brain was damaged or began to deteriorate it could not regenerate new cells in the way that other types of cells, such as liver and skin cells, are able to regenerate. The generation of new brain cells in the adult brain was thought to be impossible since a new cell could never fully integrate itself into the existing complex system of the brain. It was not until 1998 that NSCs were discovered in humans, found first in a region of the brain called the hippocampus, which was known to be instrumental in the formation of memories. NSCs were later also found to be active in the olfactory bulbs (an area that processes smell) and dormant and inactive in the septum (an area that processes emotion), the striatum (an area that processes movement), and the spinal cord.

Today scientists are investigating pharmaceuticals that could activate dormant NSCs in case the areas where neurons are located become damaged. Other avenues of research seek to figure out ways to transplant NSCs into damaged areas and to coax them to migrate throughout damaged areas. Still other stem cell researchers seek to take stem cells from other sources (i.e., embryos) and to influence these cells to develop into neurons or glial cells. The most controversial of these stem cells are the ones procured from human embryos, which must be destroyed in order to obtain the cells. Scientists have been able to create induced pluripotent stem cells by reprogramming adult somatic cells (cells of the body, excluding sperm and egg cells) through the introduction of certain regulatory genes. However, the generation of reprogrammed cells requires the use of a retrovirus, and therefore these cells have the potential to introduce harmful cancer-causing viruses into patients. Embryonic stem cells (ESCs) possess amazing potential, since they are capable of being turned into any type of cell found in the human body, but further research is needed to develop better methods of isolating and generating ESCs.

Stroke recovery is one area of research where much has been discovered about the promise and the complexities of stem cell therapy. Two main approaches can be taken to stem cell therapy: the endogenous approach or the exogenous approach. The endogenous approach relies on stimulating adult NSCs within the patient’s own body. These stem cells are found in two zones of the dentate gyrus (part of the hippocampus) in the brain, as well as in the striatum (part of the basal ganglia located deep within the cerebral hemispheres), the neocortex (the outer thickness of the highly convoluted cerebral cortex), and the spinal cord. In rat models, growth factors (cell growth-mediating substances), such as fibroblast growth factor-2, vascular endothelial growth factor, brain-derived neurotrophic factor, and erythropoietin, have been administered after strokes in an effort to induce or enhance neurogenesis, thereby staving off brain damage and spurring functional recovery. The most promising growth factor in the rat models was erythropoietin, which promotes neural progenitor cell proliferation and has been shown to induce neurogenesis and functional improvement following embolic stroke in rats. This was followed by clinical trials in which erythropoietin was administered to a small sample of stroke patients, who eventually showed dramatic improvements over individuals in the placebo group. Erythropoietin has also shown promise in patients with schizophrenia and in patients with multiple sclerosis. However, further studies need to be performed in larger groups of patients in order to confirm the efficacy of erythropoietin.

Exogenous stem cell therapies rely upon extraction, in vitro cultivation, and subsequent transplantation of stem cells into the regions of the brain affected by stroke. Studies have shown that adult NSCs can be obtained from the dentate gyrus, hippocampus, cerebral cortex, and subcortical white matter (layer underneath the cerebral cortex). Actual transplantation studies have been carried out in rats with spinal cord injury using stem cells that had been biopsied from the subventricular zone (area underlying the walls of the fluid-filled brain cavities, or ventricles) of the adult brain. Fortunately, there were no functional deficits as a result of the biopsy. There have also been studies in rats in which ESCs or fetal-derived neural stem cells and progenitor cells (undifferentiated cells; similar to stem cells but with narrower differentiation capabilities) have been transplanted into regions of the brain damaged by stroke. In these studies, the grafted NSCs successfully differentiated into neurons and glial cells, and there was some functional recovery. The major caveat, however, with exogenous therapies is that scientists have yet to fully understand the underlying mechanisms of differentiation of the progenitor cells and their integration into existing neuronal networks. In addition, scientists and clinicians do not yet know how to control the proliferation, migration, differentiation, and survival of NSCs and their progeny. This is due to the fact that NSCs are partially regulated by the specialized microenvironment, or niche, in which they reside.

There has also been research into hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs), which usually differentiate into blood cells but can also be transdifferentiated into neural lineages. These HSCs can be found in bone marrow, umbilical cord blood, and peripheral blood cells. Interestingly, these cells have been found to be spontaneously mobilized by certain types of strokes and can also be further mobilized by granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF). Studies of G-CSF in rats have shown that it can lead to functional improvement following stroke, and clinical trials in humans appear promising. Exogenous studies have also been carried out in rats with HSCs. The HSCs were administered locally at the site of damage in some studies or administered systemically through intravenous transplantation in other studies. The latter procedure is simply more feasible, and the most effective HSCs seem to be those derived from the peripheral blood.

The research that has been done on stem cell therapies for epilepsy and Parkinson disease also demonstrates the promise and difficulty of properly cultivating stem cells and introducing them into a living system. With regard to ESCs, studies have shown that they are capable of being differentiated into dopaminergic neurons (neurons that transmit or are activated by dopamine), spinal motor neurons, and oligodendrocytes (non-neuronal cells associated with the formation of myelin). In studies aimed at treating epilepsy, mouse embryonic stem cell-derived neural precursors (ESNs) were transplanted into the hippocampi of chronically epileptic rats and control rats. After transplantation, no differences were found in the functional properties of the ESNs, as they all displayed the synaptic properties characteristic of neurons. However, it still remains to be seen whether ESNs have the ability to survive for prolonged periods in the epileptic hippocampus, to differentiate into neurons with the proper hippocampal functions, and to suppress learning and memory deficits in chronic epilepsy. NSCs, on the other hand, have already been observed to survive and to differentiate into different functional forms of neurons in rats. However, it is unclear whether NSCs can differentiate into the different functional forms in appropriate amounts and whether they can synapse properly with hyperexcitable neurons in order to inhibit them, thereby curbing seizures.

Treatments for Parkinson disease also show promise and face similar obstacles. Clinical research has been carried out on the transplantation of human fetal mesencephalic tissue (tissue derived from the midbrain, which forms part of the brainstem) into the striata of Parkinson patients. However, this tissue is of limited availability, which is what makes ESC transplantation more appealing. Indeed, research has already shown that transplantable dopaminergic neurons—the kind of neurons affected in Parkinson disease—can be generated from mouse, primate, and human ESCs. The one major difference between mouse and human ESCs, however, is that human ESCs take much longer to differentiate (up to 50 days). Also, differentiation programs for human ESCs require the introduction of animal serum in order to propagate, which might violate certain medical regulations, depending on the country. Researchers will also need to figure out a way to get ESC-derived dopaminergic progenitor cells to survive for a longer period of time after transplantation. Finally, there is the issue of the purity of ESC-derived cell populations; all the cells must be certified as dopaminergic precursor cells before they can be safely transplanted. Nevertheless, differentiation and purification techniques are improving with each study. Indeed, the generation of large banks of pure and specific cell populations for human transplantation remains an attainable goal.