Coevolution

mutualism: yucca moth

coevolution, the process of reciprocal evolutionary change that occurs between pairs of species or among groups of species as they interact with one another. The activity of each species that participates in the interaction applies selection pressure on the others. In a predator-prey interaction, for example, the emergence of faster prey may select against individuals in the predatory species who are unable to keep pace. Thus, only fast individuals or those with adaptations allowing them to capture prey using other means will pass their genes to the next generation. Coevolution is one of the primary methods by which biological communities are organized. It can lead to very specialized relationships between species, such as those between pollinator and plant, between predator and prey, and between parasite and host. It may also foster the evolution of new species in cases where individual populations of interacting species separate themselves from their greater metapopulations for long periods of time.

How an interaction coevolves between species depends not only on the current genetic makeup of the species involved but also on new mutations that arise, the population characteristics of each species, and the community context in which the interaction takes place. Under some ecological conditions (such as in some predator-prey interactions or between competitors for a resource), an antagonistic interaction between two species can coevolve to enhance the antagonism; the species “build up” methods of defense and attack, much like an evolutionary arms race. Under other ecological conditions (such as in certain parasite-host interactions), however, the antagonism may be lessened.

Coevolution does not necessarily require the presence of antagonism. The interactions or characteristics within groups of unrelated species may converge to allow individual species to exploit valuable resources or enjoy increased protection. Once an interaction evolves between two species, other species within the community may develop traits akin to those integral to the interaction, whereby new species enter into the interaction. This type of convergence of species has occurred commonly in the evolution of mutualistic interactions, including those between pollinators (such as bees) and plants and those between vertebrates (such as birds and bats) and fruits.

Some of the species drawn into mutualistic interactions become co-mutualists, contributing as well as benefiting from the relationship, whereas others become cheaters that only exploit the relationship. In many interactions between bee pollinators and plants, bees collect the nectar from the reproductive parts of the plant and are often dusted with pollen in the process. When the bees fly to another plant of the same species, they may fertilize the plant by depositing pollen on the plant’s stigma. In contrast, some bumblebees, such as those of Bombus terrestris, obtain nectar from the plant without picking up or dropping off pollen. They cheat by cutting through other parts of the plant instead of entering the flower.

In other cases, the behaviour or appearance of several species may converge to enhance their mutual protection (see Müllerian mimicry). For example, several species of heliconid butterflies that are distasteful to predators have evolved to resemble one another. In addition, one species may evolve to mimic the behaviour or appearance of another to garner some of the same protections enjoyed by the model species (see Batesian mimicry). This evolutionary strategy has been successful for nonvenomous snakes, such as the scarlet king snake (Lampropeltis elapsoides), whose coloration closely resembles that of coral snakes, which can deliver a poisonous bite.

Coevolution is a complex process that occurs on many levels. It may appear in situations where one species interacts closely with several others, such as the interaction between European cuckoos (Cuculus canorus) and the other species whose nests they parasitize; it may involve many species, as in relationships between fruit-bearing plants and birds; or it may take place in some subgroups of species but not others (see geographic mosaic theory of coevolution). It is important to note that human activities often disrupt the process of coevolution by changing the nature and the extent of the interactions between coevolving species. Some examples of harmful human activities include habitat fragmentation, increased hunting pressure, favouritism of one species over another, and the introduction of exotic species into ecosystems that are ill-equipped to handle them (see also community ecology).