Cytogenetics

cytogenetics, in cell biology, field that deals with chromosomes and their inheritance, particularly as applied to medical genetics. Chromosomes are microscopic structures found in cells, and malformations associated with them lead to numerous genetic diseases. Chromosomal analysis has steadily improved in precision and resolution, and that has led to improvements in the diagnosis of various genetic diseases in all areas of medicine.

Genetic diseases begin with a mutation in chromosomal structure. Among the hundreds of types of genetic diseases are congenital abnormalities (birth defects), reproductive wastage (fetal loss), and developmental delays. Approximately 3 percent of infants are born with a congenital abnormality, and 50 percent of all spontaneous abortions involve some form of chromosomal defect. Some common genetic disorders are Down syndrome, Turner syndrome, cystic fibrosis, and Huntington disease.

The study of chromosomes begins with the extraction of intact chromosomes from live cells. Chromosomal analyses often make use of white blood cells (T lymphocytes), which multiply quickly under cell culture conditions. Chromosomes may also be extracted from skin cells, bone marrow cells, or fetal cells (by amniocentesis or chorionic villus sampling).

The 23 pairs of chromosomes can be identified by using various staining techniques, such as Giemsa banding (G-banding), quinacrine banding (Q-banding), reverse banding (R-banding), constitutive heterochromatin (or centromere) banding (C-banding), and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). G-banding is one of the most-used chromosomal staining methods. In this approach, chromosomes are first treated with an enzyme known as trypsin and then with Giemsa stain. All chromosomes can be individually identified by means of this technique. With Q-banding, chromosomes are stained with quinacrine mustard or a related compound and examined by fluorescence microscopy, which is useful for detecting heteromorphisms (variants in chromosomal structural). In chemical staining with the R-banding method, chromosomes are first treated with heat, resulting in patterns that are easier to analyze. In C-banding, regions of chromosomes containing heterochromatin (the condensed, inactive form of DNA) are stained.

FISH is used to examine specific DNA sequences and the number or structure of chromosomes. The technique is based on the use of fluorescent probes that are capable of detecting particular DNA sequences. FISH is a rapid and highly sensitive technique and often is used to detect genetic abnormalities in embryos (preimplantation genetic diagnosis).