Congenital Heart Disease

congenital heart disease, any abnormality of the heart that is present at birth. Cardiac abnormalities are generally caused by abnormal development of the heart and circulatory system before birth. Abnormal development can be caused by a variety of factors, including infection and use of certain drugs by the mother during pregnancy. Some congenital cardiac abnormalities are inherited and may be transmitted as autosomal or sex-linked traits. However, for some of the more common abnormalities, there is no obvious heritable relationship, nor is the origin of the disease readily explained.

One common type of congenital abnormality is a simple septal defect, where a hole is found in the partition, or septum, between the right atrium and left atrium or between the right ventricle and left ventricle of the heart. The most common such defect is persistence of the foramen ovale, an opening in the atrial septum that is normal before birth and that should close at birth or shortly thereafter. A hole between the two sides of the heart produces an abnormal mixture of oxygenated blood from the pulmonary circulation and deoxygenated blood from the systemic circulation. It also causes a sort of short circuit to develop where more blood flows through the lungs than through the other organs of the body. Ultimately such a condition may cause thickening of the walls of the pulmonary artery as well as pulmonary hypertension (high blood pressure). Increased stress may be placed on the right ventricle as it tries to pump blood through the pulmonary circuits for oxygenation. Right heart failure may then develop, and the supply of appropriately oxygenated blood to the body tissues may become compromised. Defects of the atrium and ventricle can be repaired surgically with ease and great success as long as severe, irreversible pulmonary hypertension has not developed.

Another type of congenital abnormality affects the heart valves, causing valvular insufficiency or obstruction. As with septal defects, valve defects generally can be repaired by surgery. More-complicated defects, however, often involve a combination of abnormalities. An example can be seen in tetralogy of Fallot, a condition where there is narrowing of the valve to the pulmonary artery (pulmonary stenosis), a ventricular septal defect, an aorta that overrides both the right and left ventricle so that it receives blood from both sides of the heart, and severe thickening of the muscle of the right ventricle (right ventricular hypertrophy). As a result of these defects, the circulating blood is deprived of oxygen, causing the bluish discoloration of the skin known as blue baby syndrome.

Yet another group of congenital heart defects affects the aorta and the pulmonary artery. In the complex abnormality known as transposition of the great arteries, the aorta, the great conduit of blood to the organs and tissues of the body, rises from the right ventricle, which under normal anatomic configurations pumps blood to the lungs; at the same time, the pulmonary artery, the conduit of blood to the lungs, rises from the left ventricle, which normally pumps blood through the aorta to the body. Another condition is patent ductus arteriosus, where a temporary channel that connects the pulmonary artery and the first segment of the descending thoracic aorta during fetal growth fails to close after birth, causing some mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. In coarctation of the aorta, the aorta may be narrowed just below the point where the arteries supplying the upper part of the body emerge, thus increasing blood pressure in the upper half of the body and reducing pressure in the lower half of the body.

Depending on the constellation of abnormalities, congenital heart disease is often categorized as either cyanotic (causing a bluish skin colour) or noncyanotic. Cyanosis occurs when a mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood courses through the arteries, bringing on the blue-red-violet hue characteristic of deoxygenated blood in the veins.

Some congenital cardiac defects are associated with high neonatal and infant mortality. One example is hypoplastic left heart syndrome, a very serious condition in which the left ventricle and other structures are underdeveloped, severely compromising blood flow through the body. Fortunately, surgical advances have made it possible to correct many defects, so that some patients who once would have succumbed at a very young age now lead longer and relatively normal lives. For some congenital heart disease patients, a heart transplant or combined heart-lung transplant is an option.