Special District

special district, in U.S. politics, service providers created by local authorities to operate within specifically defined areas and in response to public demand. Special districts mostly provide a single service such as education, cemeteries, transportation, or fire protection, and they usually are used for ongoing service provision—including street lighting, park maintenance, and storm-drainage management—rather than for one-time projects.

Special districts possess many of the same governing powers as states, counties, and cities. They can enter into contracts, employ workers, and acquire real property through purchase or eminent domain. They can also issue debt, impose taxes, levy assessments, and charge fees for their services. Special districts, like other governments, can sue and be sued. They can also adopt a seal and alter it at will.

California and other western states pioneered the special district instrument for water and agricultural needs in the 19th century. By the early 21st century there were tens of thousands of special districts nationally, with the western and Midwestern states, as well as Texas, leading in the use of this form of government. One classification of types of special districts covers three sets of contrasting features: single-function versus multifunction, enterprise versus non-enterprise, and independent versus dependent.

Single-function special districts are the most common type, examples of which include school building authorities, libraries, hospitals, health, highways, air transportation, fire protection, drainage or flood control, irrigation, sewerage, solid-waste management, water supply, cemeteries, and mosquito abatement. Multifunction special districts govern parks and recreation, housing and community development, industrial development and mortgage credit, natural resources and water supply, and sewerage and water supply, among others.

Enterprise special districts include gas, water, and electrical utilities. Rather than taxing all recipients, this type of special district usually charges customers by quantity consumed. Sometimes nonenterprise special districts charge use or service fees, which are minor sources of revenue, such as from rental of facilities and swimming pool admission charges. However, nonenterprise districts basically rely on property taxation or other taxes, such as sales tax. Services commonly provided by nonenterprise districts include fire protection, libraries, and police protection.

Independent special districts have their own separate boards of directors elected by the district’s voters for fixed terms. Governing boards vary in membership with the size and nature of the district. Dependent special districts, on the other hand, are governed by the elected bodies of general-purpose governments. Larger independent districts usually have a professional manager similar to a city manager to assist board members. Small dependent districts in large cities or counties, such as street or lighting maintenance or mosquito abatement districts, are often clustered together for administrative purposes in public works or engineering departments.