Hovercraft

Hovercraft, any of a series of British-built and British-operated air-cushion vehicles (ACVs) that for 40 years (1959–2000) ferried passengers and automobiles across the English Channel between southern England and northern France. The cross-Channel Hovercraft were built by Saunders-Roe Limited of the Isle of Wight and its successor companies. The first in the series, known as SR.N1 (for Saunders-Roe Nautical 1), a four-ton vehicle that could carry only its crew of three, was invented by English engineer Christopher Cockerell; it crossed the Channel for the first time on July 25, 1959. Ten years later Cockerell was knighted for his accomplishment. By that time the last and largest of the series, the SR.N4, also called the Mountbatten class, had begun to ply the ferry routes between Ramsgate and Dover on the English side and Calais and Boulogne on the French side. In their largest variants, these enormous vehicles, weighing 265 tons and powered by four Rolls-Royce gas-turbine engines, could carry more than 50 cars and more than 400 passengers at 65 knots (1 knot = 1.15 miles or 1.85 km per hour). At such speeds the cross-Channel trip was reduced to a mere half hour. In their heyday of the late 1960s and early ’70s, the various Hovercraft ferry services (with names such as Hoverlloyd, Seaspeed, and Hoverspeed), were ferrying as many as one-third of all cross-Channel passengers. Such was the allure of this quintessentially British technical marvel that one of the Mountbatten vehicles appeared in the James Bond film Diamonds Are Forever (1971). However, the craft were always expensive to maintain and operate (especially in an era of rising fuel costs), and they never turned consistent profits for their owners. The last two SR.N4 vehicles were retired in October 2000, to be transferred to the Hovercraft Museum at Lee-on-the-Solent, Hampshire, England. Cockerell’s original SR.N1 is in the collection of the Science Museum’s facility at Wroughton, near Swindon, Wiltshire. The generic term hovercraft continues to be applied to numerous other ACVs built and operated around the world, including small sport hovercraft, medium-sized ferries that work coastal and riverine routes, and powerful amphibious assault craft employed by major military powers.

Perhaps the first man to research the ACV concept was Sir John Thornycroft, a British engineer who in the 1870s began to build test models to check his theory that drag on a ship’s hull could be reduced if the vessel were given a concave bottom in which air could be contained between hull and water. His patent of 1877 emphasized that, “provided the air cushion could be carried along under the vehicle,” the only power that the cushion would require would be that necessary to replace lost air. Neither Thornycroft nor other inventors in following decades succeeded in solving the cushion-containment problem. In the meantime aviation developed, and pilots early discovered that their aircraft developed greater lift when they were flying very close to land or a water surface. It was soon determined that the greater lift was available because wing and ground together created a “funnel” effect, increasing the air pressure. The amount of additional pressure proved dependent on the design of the wing and its height above ground. The effect was strongest when the height was between one-half and one-third of the average front-to-rear breadth of the wing (chord).

Practical use was made of the ground effect in 1929 by the German Dornier Do X flying boat, which achieved a considerable gain in performance during an Atlantic crossing when it flew close to the sea surface. World War II maritime reconnaissance aircraft also made use of the phenomenon to extend their endurance.

In the 1960s American aerodynamicists developed an experimental craft making use of a wing in connection with ground effect. Several other proposals of this type were put forward, and a further variation combined the airfoil characteristics of a ground-effect machine with an air-cushion lift system that allowed the craft to develop its own hovering power while stationary and then build up forward speed, gradually transferring the lift component to its airfoil. Although none of these craft got beyond the experimental stage, they were important portents of the future because they suggested means of using the hovering advantage of the ACV and overcoming its theoretical speed limitation of about 200 miles (320 km) per hour, above which it was difficult to hold the air cushion in place. Such vehicles are known as ram-wing craft.

In the early 1950s engineers in the United Kingdom, the United States, and Switzerland were seeking solutions to Sir John Thornycroft’s 80-year-old problem. Christopher Cockerell of the United Kingdom is now acknowledged as the father of the Hovercraft, as the ACV is popularly known. During World War II he had been closely connected with the development of radar and other radio aids and had retired into peacetime life as a boatbuilder. Soon he began to concern himself with Thornycroft’s problem of reducing the hydrodynamic drag on the hull of a boat with some kind of air lubrication.

Cockerell bypassed Thornycroft’s plenum chamber (in effect, an empty box with an open bottom) principle, in which air is pumped directly into a cavity beneath the vessel, because of the difficulty in containing the cushion. He theorized that, if air were instead pumped under the vessel through a narrow slot running entirely around the circumference, the air would flow toward the centre of the vessel, forming an external curtain that would effectively contain the cushion. This system is known as a peripheral jet. Once air has built up below the craft to a pressure equaling the craft weight, incoming air has nowhere to go but outward and experiences a sharp change of velocity on striking the surface. The momentum of the peripheral jet air keeps the cushion pressure and the ground clearance higher than it would be if air were pumped directly into a plenum chamber. To test his theory, Cockerell set up an apparatus consisting of a blower that fed air into an inverted coffee tin through a hole in the base. The tin was suspended over the weighing pan of a pair of kitchen scales, and air blown into the tin forced the pan down against the mass of a number of weights. In this way the forces involved were roughly measured. By securing a second tin within the first and directing air down through the space between, Cockerell was able to demonstrate that more than three times the number of weights could be raised by this means, compared with the plenum chamber effect of the single can.

Cockerell’s first patent was filed on December 12, 1955, and in the following year he formed a company known as Hovercraft Limited. His early memoranda and reports show a prescient grasp of the problems involved in translating the theory into practice—problems that would still concern designers of Hovercraft years later. He forecast, for example, that some kind of secondary suspension would be required in addition to the air cushion itself. Realizing that his discovery would not only make boats go faster but also would allow the development of amphibious craft, Cockerell approached the Ministry of Supply, the British government’s defense-equipment procurement authority. The air-cushion vehicle was classified “secret” in November 1956, and a development contract was placed with the Saunders-Roe aircraft and seaplane manufacturer. In 1959 the world’s first practical ACV was launched. It was called the SR.N1.

Originally the SR.N1 had a total weight of four tons and could carry three men at a maximum speed of 25 knots over very calm water. Instead of having a completely solid structure to contain the cushion and peripheral jet, it incorporated a 6-inch- (15-cm-) deep skirt of rubberized fabric. This development provided a means whereby the air cushion could easily be contained despite unevenness of the ground or water. It was soon found that the skirt made it possible to revert once again to the plenum chamber as a cushion producer. Use of the skirt brought the problem of making skirts durable enough to withstand the friction wear produced at high speeds through water. It was necessary to develop the design and manufacturing skills that would allow skirts to be made in the optimum shape for aerodynamic efficiency. Skirts of rubber and plastic mixtures, 4 feet (1.2 metres) deep, had been developed by early 1963, and the performance of the SR.N1 had been increased by using them (and incorporating gas-turbine power) to a payload of seven tons and a maximum speed of 50 knots.

Hovercraft

The first crossing of the English Channel by the SR.N1 was on July 25, 1959, symbolically on the 50th anniversary of French aviator Louis Blériot’s first flight across the same water. Manufacturers and operators in many parts of the world became interested. Manufacture of various types of ACV began in the United States, Japan, Sweden, and France; and in Britain additional British companies were building craft in the early 1960s. By the early 1970s, however, only the British were producing what could truly be called a range of craft and employing the largest types in regular ferry service—and this against considerable odds.

The stagnation can be explained by a number of problems, all of which led to the failure of commercial ACVs to live up to what many people thought was their original promise. As already mentioned, the design of and materials used in flexible skirts had to be developed from the first, and not until 1965 was an efficient and economic flexible-skirt arrangement evolved, and even then the materials were still being developed. Another major problem arose when aircraft gas-turbine engines were used in a marine environment. Although such engines, suitably modified, had been installed in ships with some success, their transition into Hovercraft brought out their extreme vulnerability to saltwater corrosion. An ACV by its very nature generates a great deal of spray when it is hovering over water, and the spray is drawn into the intakes of gas turbines in amounts not envisaged by the engine designer. Even after considerable filtering, the moisture and salt content is high enough to corrode large modern gas-turbine engines to such an extent that they need a daily wash with pure water, and even then they have a considerably reduced life span between overhauls. Another problem, perhaps ultimately fatal to the cross-Channel Hovercraft, was the rising price of petroleum-based fuel following the oil crisis of 1973–74. Burdened by high fuel costs, Hovercraft ferry services rarely turned a profit and in fact frequently lost millions of pounds a year. Finally, the opening of the Channel Tunnel in 1994 and the development of more efficient conventional boat ferries (some of them with catamaran-type hulls) presented such stiff competition that the building of successors to the big Mountbatten-class Hovercraft could not be justified.