Sea Ice

sea ice, frozen seawater in the Arctic Ocean and its adjacent seas as far south as China and Japan and in the Southern Ocean and its adjacent seas surrounding Antarctica. Most sea ice occurs as pack ice, which is very mobile, drifting across the ocean surface under the influence of the wind and ocean currents and moving vertically under the influence of tides, waves, and swells. There is also landfast ice, or fast ice, which is immobile, since it is either attached directly to the coast or seafloor or locked in place between grounded icebergs. Fast ice grows in place by freezing of seawater or by pack ice becoming attached to the shore, seafloor, or icebergs. Fast ice moves up and down in response to tides, waves, and swells, and pieces may break off and become part of the pack ice. A third type of sea ice, known as marine ice, forms far below the ocean surface at the bottom of ice shelves in Antarctica. Occasionally seen in icebergs that calve from the ice shelves, marine ice can appear green due to organic matter in the ice.

sea ice and albedo

Sea ice undergoes large seasonal changes in extent as the ocean freezes and the ice cover expands in the autumn and winter, followed by a period of melting and retreat in the spring and summer. Northern Hemisphere sea ice extent typically ranges from approximately 8 million square km in September to approximately 15 million square km in March. (One square kilometre equals approximately 0.4 square mile.) Southern Hemisphere sea ice extent ranges from approximately 4 million square km in February to approximately 20 million square km in September. Fourteen of the lowest minimum sea ice extent measurements for the Arctic in the satellite era have occurred between 2006 and 2020. In September 2012 the minimum sea ice extent in the Northern Hemisphere declined to roughly 3.41 million square km, a figure more than 50 percent below mean sea ice coverage for that time of year. That was the lowest minimum since record keeping began in 1979. In March 2015 the maximum sea ice extent in the Northern Hemisphere fell to approximately 14.5 million square km, the lowest maximum since record keeping began. Globally, the minimum and maximum sea ice extents are about 10 million square km and 28 million square km, respectively. Measured routinely using data obtained from orbiting satellite instruments, the minimum and maximum sea ice extent figures vary annually and by decade. These figures are important factors for understanding polar and global climatic variation and change.