Modoc

Modoc and Klamath, two neighbouring North American Indian tribes who lived in what are now south-central Oregon and northern California, spoke related dialects of a language called Klamath-Modoc (which may be related to Sahaptin), and shared many cultural traits. Their traditional territory lay in the southern Cascade Range and was some 100 miles (160 km) long and 25 miles (40 km) wide, dotted with marshes, lakes, rivers, and streams. The Klamath, in the northern sectors, were primarily fishers and hunters of waterfowl; the Modoc, in the southern sectors, were also fishers but relied more on gathering edible roots, seeds, and berries and on hunting various game. Both tribes are considered to be Plateau Indians, though they were influenced by neighbouring California Indians as well as those from the Pacific Northwest and Great Basin.

The Modoc and Klamath were organized into relatively autonomous villages, each with its own leaders, shamans, and medicine men. Although functioning independently in most situations, the villages would ally for war, and members of different villages often married. During winter, when snowdrifts could reach six feet (two metres) or more, most village families lived in semisubterranean earth-covered lodges, usually one family to a lodge. Poorer families lived in simpler mat-covered houses. In summer the usual dwelling was either a domed house of poles and matting or a lean-to of brush. Sweat houses, used by both men and women, doubled as community centres for prayer and other religious activities. Religious belief focused largely on guardian spirits, whose aid was sought for all manner of human accomplishments.

In 1864 the U.S. government pressed the two tribes to relinquish most of their territory and take up residence on a reservation around Upper Klamath Lake. The land was traditionally Klamath, however, and that tribe treated the Modoc as intruders; the U.S. government, moreover, failed in its treaty obligations to supply rations to the Modoc. Hence, in 1870 an insurgent band of Modocs under Kintpuash, a subchief known to the American military as Captain Jack, left the reservation. Federal efforts to induce this group’s return precipitated the Modoc War of 1872–73, in which about 80 warriors and their families retreated to the California Lava Beds, a land of complex ravines and caves; there they mounted an effective resistance. After the murder of Brig. Gen. Edward Canby, who headed a peace commission in April 1873, U.S. troops prosecuted the war more vigorously. Betrayed by four of his followers, Captain Jack surrendered and was hanged. His followers were removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) and were not allowed to return to Oregon until 1909, after spending more than 30 years away from the region in which they sought to stay.

In the mid-20th century the U.S. government instituted a movement known as “termination,” in which tribes lost federal recognition and the benefits and protections associated with that status. In 1954 the federal government terminated its relationship with the inhabitants of the Klamath reservation. The reservation land was condemned and sold, and the proceeds were distributed among the former residents. Most of the land was incorporated into the Winema National Forest. The Modoc and Klamath people regained federal recognition in 1986, but they did not regain their former reservation lands.

Population estimates indicated some 5,500 Modoc and Klamath descendants in the early 21st century.