Cardiac Muscle

cardiac muscle, also called myocardium, in vertebrates, one of three major muscle types, found only in the heart. Cardiac muscle is similar to skeletal muscle, another major muscle type, in that it possesses contractile units known as sarcomeres; this feature, however, also distinguishes it from smooth muscle, the third muscle type. Cardiac muscle differs from skeletal muscle in that it exhibits rhythmic contractions and is not under voluntary control. The rhythmic contraction of cardiac muscle is regulated by the sinoatrial node of the heart, which serves as the heart’s pacemaker.

The heart consists mostly of cardiac muscle cells (or myocardium). The outstanding characteristics of the action of the heart are its contractility, which is the basis for its pumping action, and the rhythmicity of the contraction. The amount of blood pumped by the heart per minute (the cardiac output) varies to meet the metabolic needs of peripheral tissues, particularly the skeletal muscles, kidneys, brain, skin, liver, heart, and gastrointestinal tract. The cardiac output is determined by the contractile force developed by the cardiac muscle cells, as well as by the frequency at which they are activated (rhythmicity). The factors affecting the frequency and force of heart muscle contraction are critical in determining the normal pumping performance of the heart and its response to changes in demand.

Cardiac muscle cells form a highly branched cellular network in the heart. They are connected end to end by intercalated disks and are organized into layers of myocardial tissue that are wrapped around the chambers of the heart. The contraction of individual cardiac muscle cells produces force and shortening in these bands of muscle, with a resultant decrease in the heart chamber size and the consequent ejection of the blood into the pulmonary and systemic vessels. Important components of each cardiac muscle cell involved in excitation and metabolic recovery processes are the plasma membrane and transverse tubules in registration with the Z lines, the longitudinal sarcoplasmic reticulum and terminal cisternae, and the mitochondria. The thick (myosin) and thin (actin, troponin, and tropomyosin) protein filaments are arranged into contractile units, with the sarcomere extending from Z line to Z line, that have a characteristic cross-striated pattern similar to that seen in skeletal muscle.

The rate at which the heart contracts and the synchronization of atrial and ventricular contraction required for the efficient pumping of blood depend on the electrical properties of the cardiac muscle cells and on the conduction of electrical information from one region of the heart to another. The action potential (activation of the muscle) is divided into five phases. Each of the phases of the action potential is caused by time-dependent changes in the permeability of the plasma membrane to potassium ions (K⁺), sodium ions (Na⁺), and calcium ions (Ca²⁺).