Body Modifications and Mutilations

body modifications and mutilations, intentional permanent or semipermanent alterations of the living human body for reasons such as ritual, folk medicine, aesthetics, or corporal punishment. In general, voluntary changes are considered to be modifications, and involuntary changes are considered mutilations. Common methods that have been used are incision, perforation, complete or partial removal, cautery, abrasion, adhesion, insertion of foreign bodies or materials, compression, distention, diversion, enlargement, and staining. By the early 21st century, many practices, whether medical (dentistry, orthodontics, surgery), aesthetic (using cosmetics), or some combination of these (engaging in athletic training regimens), had become so common they were rarely thought of as body modifications.

Modifications have generally been used to mark the social position of an individual in a manner visible to and recognized by other members of the society. That similar modifications are interpreted very differently from one culture to the next is an excellent indication of the relativity of ideals of beauty and deformity.