South, The

The Pinnacle, Cumberland Gap National Historical Park

the South, region, southeastern United States, generally though not exclusively considered to be south of the Mason and Dixon Line, the Ohio River, and the 36°30′ parallel. As defined by the U.S. federal government, it includes Alabama, Arkansas, Delaware, the District of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, Oklahoma, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. The South was historically set apart from other sections of the country by a complex of factors: a long growing season, its staple crop patterns, the plantation system, and Black agricultural labour, whether slave or free. White domination of Blacks characterized Southern politics and economics from the 17th century and began to yield only after World War II.

Cotton Pressing in Louisiana

The warm climate of the South affords a period of 200–290 frost-free days per year, enabling such profitable crops as tobacco, rice, sugarcane, and cotton to be grown. This climate, coupled with abundant rainfall, offered 17th- and 18th-century European settlers a superb opportunity to raise crops for export if an adequate permanent labour supply could be found. The source proved to be enslaved Africans, made available for purchase through the international slave trade. From this unique situation of supply and demand arose the system of plantation slavery, which above all other factors distinguished the South from other U.S. regions. By 1790, Black people constituted about one-third of the Southern population and almost the entire workforce on the plantations. At the beginning of the American Civil War (1861), more than four million Black people remained in bondage, though less than one-sixth of the white population actually owned slaves.

Economically, the antebellum and cotton-oriented South looked to the British textile industry for its market and opposed the growing politico-economic power of the industrializing North. The Southern social philosophy, holding to an ideal of rural gentry, presented a sharp contrast to that of the North: it stressed a genteel, aristocratic lifestyle rather than one based on the earnest accumulation of money.

In the period between the American Revolution (1775–83) and about 1830, the North, spurred by the abolitionists, passed from mild opposition to strong condemnation of slavery. In response, the white South rose to an unqualified defense of its “peculiar institution,” supporting it on the grounds of biblical sanction, economic justification, the supposed racial inferiority of Black people, and the necessity for a well-ordered society. Southern separatism in defense of slavery culminated in 1860–61, when 11 Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Arkansas, North Carolina, Virginia, and Tennessee) seceded from the Union and formed the Confederate States of America. The ensuing Civil War (1861–65) wrought immense destruction on much of the South, which emerged the loser in the conflict. In many areas, cropland was ruined, livestock lost, railroads destroyed, and billions of dollars in slave-related investments wiped out. Recovering slowly from this destruction, much of the South continued to rely largely on a one-crop economy—cotton, tobacco, or rice—and to cultivate the crops with the labour of African American freedmen. After Reconstruction ended (1877), the white-dominated South’s continuing insistence on the inferiority and subordination of African Americans through a system of legalized racial control measures known as Jim Crow laws resulted in the replacement of slavery with three institutions: the economic system of sharecropping (tenant farming), the political system of one-party politics (Democratic), and the social system of racial segregation, supported by law and custom.

Until 1932 the South remained an impoverished and undiversified region. The growth of a textile industry in the Carolinas and the movement to develop a “New South” after the Civil War had not seriously qualified the region’s commitment to cotton, to agriculture, and to a rural way of life. African Americans remained a kind of peasantry, and the income of the South stood at only $372 per capita in 1929, while income outside the South was $797 per capita. Chronic overproduction of cotton, with its attendant low prices, forced more and more farmers, both Black and white, into sharecropping; between 1880 and 1930 Southern land tenancy increased from 36 to 55 percent. The Great Depression of the 1930s caused a total bankruptcy of the cotton economy, which was not relieved until federal New Deal legislation intervened to provide payments for reducing cotton acreage and for unemployment relief. Both of these devices encouraged migration to the cities, a trend that was accelerated during World War II by a heavy influx of Southern African Americans in Northern industrial centres (see Great Migration).

Norris Dam

The New Deal, however, was ultimately to benefit the South. The cotton acreage quota system led to improvements in productivity and to diversification of the agricultural base. The Tennessee Valley Authority, a vast river-development scheme created in 1933, brought electricity to many rural families, further increased farmland productivity through flood control and improved soil management, and laid the groundwork for new industry.

After World War II the South began to experience sustained growth and industrialization, particularly in the lumber, paper, petrochemical, and aerospace industries. The cultivation of citrus and other fruits, peanuts (groundnuts), and soybeans eradicated the Deep South’s historic dependence on cotton, which fell below livestock, poultry, and textiles in production value. By the 21st century, manufacturing was the largest sector of the economy in most Southern states.

Selma March

During the second half of the 20th century, the population of the South boomed, exceeding 100 million by the end of the century, when the increasingly urban region contained two-fifths of the nation’s 50 largest metropolitan areas. By the 2000 census, Texas had surpassed New York as the second most populous state. Moreover, Florida’s population more than doubled in the final three decades of the 20th century. As the demographic balance of the country shifted southward, the South consistently gained Congressional representation. Meanwhile, the region’s political profile changed dramatically. A split in the Democratic Party in response to its postwar civil rights platform led to the ascendency of George Wallace and caused many segregationist Southern conservatives to flee to the Republican Party. This split was so exacerbated by the growing civil rights movement of the 1960s that by the 1980s the Democratic monopoly of the South was fully broken. Ever wealthier, the South played an increasing role in national politics beginning in the final quarter of the 20th century. Democrats Jimmy Carter of Georgia and Bill Clinton of Arkansas as well as Republicans George H.W. Bush and George W. Bush of Texas were elected president, and Southern support became pivotal to successful presidential campaigns. The controversial continued use of the Confederate flag by some Southern states remains a hotly debated political issue, as are Confederate monuments.

Culturally, the South boasts a literary tradition stretching from Sidney Lanier and Kate Chopin in the 19th century to William Faulkner, James Agee, and Eudora Welty in the 20th century and to Jesmyn Ward, Ron Rash, Natasha Trethewey, Wendell Berry, and Tayari Jones in the 21st century. It has also been the crucible of jazz, blues, rock, and country music.