Shannon, Claude

Claude Shannon, in full Claude Elwood Shannon, (born April 30, 1916, Petoskey, Michigan, U.S.—died February 24, 2001, Medford, Massachusetts), American mathematician and electrical engineer who laid the theoretical foundations for digital circuits and information theory, a mathematical communication model.

After graduating from the University of Michigan in 1936 with bachelor’s degrees in mathematics and electrical engineering, Shannon obtained a research assistant’s position at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). There, among other duties, he worked with the noted researcher Vannevar Bush, helping to set up differential equations on Bush’s differential analyzer. A summer internship at American Telephone and Telegraph’s Bell Laboratories in New York City in 1937 inspired much of Shannon’s subsequent research interests. In 1940 he earned both a master’s degree in electrical engineering and a Ph.D. in mathematics from MIT. He joined the mathematics department at Bell Labs in 1941, where he first contributed to work on antiaircraft missile control systems. He remained affiliated with Bell Labs until 1972. Shannon became a visiting professor at MIT in 1956, a permanent member of the faculty in 1958, and professor emeritus in 1978.

Shannon’s master’s thesis, A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits (1940), used Boolean algebra to establish the theoretical underpinnings of digital circuits. Because digital circuits are fundamental to the operation of modern computers and telecommunications equipment, this dissertation was called one of the most significant master’s theses of the 20th century. In contrast, his doctoral thesis, An Algebra for Theoretical Genetics (1940), was not as influential.

In 1948 Shannon published “A Mathematical Theory of Communication,” which built on the foundations of other researchers at Bell Labs such as Harry Nyquist and R.V.L. Hartley. Shannon’s paper, however, went far beyond the earlier work. It established the basic results of information theory in such a complete form that his framework and terminology are still used. (The paper appears to contain the first published use of the term bit to designate a single binary digit.)

An important step taken by Shannon was to separate the technical problem of delivering a message from the problem of understanding what a message means. This step permitted engineers to focus on the message delivery system. Shannon concentrated on two key questions in his 1948 paper: determining the most efficient encoding of a message using a given alphabet in a noiseless environment, and understanding what additional steps need to be taken in the presence of noise.

Shannon solved these problems successfully for a very abstract (hence widely applicable) model of a communications system that includes both discrete (digital) and continuous (analog) systems. In particular, he developed a measure of the efficiency of a communications system, called the entropy (analogous to the thermodynamic concept of entropy, which measures the amount of disorder in physical systems), that is computed on the basis of the statistical properties of the message source.

Shannon’s formulation of information theory was an immediate success with communications engineers and continues to prove useful. It also inspired many attempts to apply information theory in other areas, such as cognition, biology, linguistics, psychology, economics, and physics. In fact, there was so much enthusiasm in this direction that in 1956 Shannon wrote a paper, “The Bandwagon,” to moderate some overenthusiastic proponents.

Renowned for his eclectic interests and capabilities—including such activities as juggling while riding a unicycle down the halls of Bell Labs—Shannon produced many provocative and influential articles on information theory, cryptography, and chess-playing computers, as well as designing various mechanical devices.