Thoracic Outlet Syndrome

thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS), name given for a spectrum of symptoms caused by compression of the brachial nerve plexus, which innervates the arm, and the subclavian artery and vein that provide blood circulation to the arm. The syndrome is typically diagnosed in people between 20 and 40 years of age and is much more common in women.

Normally, the first rib attaches to the first thoracic vertebra, and the brachial plexus, which is derived from spinal nerves in the neck, cascades between the clavicle (collarbone) and the first rib before entering the upper arm. Similarly, the subclavian artery and vein exit the chest cavity by looping over the first rib and following the plexus. Muscles, especially the anterior and middle scalenes (on the sides of the neck) and the trapezius (along the upper back and neck), normally protect those structures without compressing them.

Symptoms of thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) can occur in individuals who are born with an extra rib originating from the seventh cervical vertebra (C7, or vertebra prominens); that so-called cervical (or neck) rib can compress the nerves or the vessels running over the first thoracic rib. Similarly, a fibrous band can originate from a cervical rib or vertebra and connect to the rib cage, causing compression. TOS can also be an acquired condition. Risk factors include occupations that require large amounts of overhead work and athletic activities that involve repetitive shoulder movement (especially swimming, weight lifting, and rowing). Musicians such as violinists and flutists may also be more susceptible. Poor posture can worsen symptoms.

TOS is sometimes classified into two categories: neurogenic and vascular. Neurogenic TOS is more common and results when the brachial nerve plexus is compressed. Pain in the arm, especially while doing work with the arms or shoulders, is often the presenting symptom. Pain can also occur when patients turn their head or breathe deeply (both of which narrow the passage for the nerves and vessels). Muscle weakness in the shoulder, arm, and hand also result from plexus compression; atrophy of the hand muscles can be quite pronounced. In addition, patients may experience tingling or impaired sensation.

In vascular TOS, symptoms are caused by compression of the subclavian artery (arterial TOS) or vein (venous TOS). Arterial compression starves the arm for oxygen, causing it to become pale and cold. Venous compression causes edema (accumulation of fluid) in the arm, with distension of the veins in the hand and sometimes in the chest. Blood clots may form at the compressed locations, worsening the blockage of blood flow; in some instances clots may break loose and lodge in smaller blood vessels, causing pulmonary embolism or other severe vascular complications. Arterial compression can also lead to the formation of an aneurysm (a bulge in the wall of an artery).

Diagnosis of TOS is often very difficult because of the spectrum of symptoms and the lack of a definitive and accurate test. Physical examination is crucial; motor and sensory function of the arm and hand are carefully checked, and there are several positional tests that can reduce pulses at the wrist or cause a murmur over the neck if TOS is present. Radiographs are useful to identify cervical ribs, but they do not detect fibrous bands. Doppler ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) angiography are used to evaluate blood flow in suspected vascular TOS. Conduction tests of nerves in the arm and electromyography of the hand muscles can detect many cases of neurogenic TOS, although those tests have high rates of false-negative results. Complicating diagnosis is the fact that TOS closely mimics the symptoms of several other conditions, notably cervical disk disease and carpal tunnel syndrome.

TOS can sometimes be relieved by avoiding activities that trigger symptoms, by losing excess upper body weight, and by physical therapy and exercise that strengthen the shoulder muscles and improve posture. However, surgery is sometimes necessary to relieve symptoms, either by correcting the abnormal anatomy (such as removal of a cervical rib) or by relieving pressure on the nerves and vessels (such as by dividing the anterior scalene muscle). Two surgical approaches to the thoracic outlet are commonly used. One is the supraclavicular approach, in which the incision is made just superior to the clavicle to expose the anterior scalene muscle. That approach is useful in patients with compression of the upper brachial plexus, especially if a cervical rib is present. The other is the transaxillary approach, which is made by an incision in the armpit. Transaxillary operations are ideal for operating near the lower brachial plexus. Surgery for TOS is controversial, in part because of the high potential for complications such as nerve or vascular injury. Even after surgical correction, TOS can recur; rib remnants can regenerate to a degree, and divided scalene muscles can reattach.