Atomic Theory

atomic theory, ancient philosophical speculation that all things can be accounted for by innumerable combinations of hard, small, indivisible particles (called atoms) of various sizes but of the same basic material; or the modern scientific theory of matter according to which the chemical elements that combine to form the great variety of substances consist themselves of aggregations of similar subunits (atoms) possessing nuclear and electron substructure characteristic of each element. The ancient atomic theory was proposed in the 5th century bce by the Greek philosophers Leucippus and Democritus and was revived in the 1st century bce by the Roman philosopher and poet Lucretius. The modern atomic theory, which has undergone continuous refinement, began to flourish at the beginning of the 19th century with the work of the English chemist John Dalton. The experiments of the British physicist Ernest Rutherford in the early 20th century on the scattering of alpha particles from a thin gold foil established the Rutherford atomic model of an atom as consisting of a central, positively charged nucleus containing nearly all the mass and surrounded by a cloud of negatively charged planetlike electrons.

With the advent of quantum mechanics and the Schrödinger equation in the 1920s, atomic theory became a precise mathematical science. Austrian physicist Erwin Schrödinger devised a partial differential equation for the quantum dynamics of atomic electrons, including the electrostatic repulsion of all the negatively charged electrons from each other and their attraction to the positively charged nucleus. The equation can be solved exactly for an atom containing only a single electron (hydrogen), and very close approximations can be found for atoms containing two or three electrons (helium and lithium, respectively). To the extent that the Schrödinger equation can be solved for more-complex cases, atomic theory is capable of predicting from first principles the properties of all atoms and their interactions. The recent availability of high-speed supercomputers to solve the Schrödinger equation has made possible accurate calculations of properties for atoms and molecules with ever larger numbers of electrons. Precise agreement with experiment is obtained if small corrections due to the effects of the theory of special relativity and quantum electrodynamics are also included.