Thymus

thymus, pyramid-shaped lymphoid organ that, in humans, is immediately beneath the breastbone at the level of the heart. The organ is called thymus because its shape resembles that of a thyme leaf. The primary function of the thymus is to facilitate the maturation of lymphocytes known as T cells, or thymus-derived cells, which determine the specificity of immune response to antigens (foreign substances) in the body.

Unlike most other structures in the lymphatic system, the thymus grows rapidly and attains its greatest size relative to the rest of the body during fetal life and the first years after birth. Thereafter, it continues to grow, but more slowly than the other organs. At the onset of puberty, the thymus begins a slow process of shrinking. This gradual diminution in size continues for the rest of the individual’s life.

diagram of the human lymphatic system

The thymus is divided into two lobes, lying on either side of the midline of the body, and into smaller subdivisions called lobules. It is covered by a dense connective-tissue capsule, which sends fibres into the body of the thymus for support. The thymus tissue is distinguishable into an outer zone, the cortex, and an inner zone, the medulla.

The organ is composed principally of two types of cells, called, respectively, lymphocytes (specifically, T cells, B cells, and natural killer cells) and reticular cells. The reticular cells form a loose meshwork, as in a lymph node, while the spaces between them are packed with lymphocytes. The cortex, characterized by its heavy lymphocyte concentration, is the site of much lymphocyte proliferation, especially of T cells, and the site of T cell differentiation. Proliferation of lymphocytes in the thymus is distributed evenly throughout the cortex, instead of in germinal centres, as occurs in other lymphoid tissue. Some of the T cells that are produced in the cortex migrate to the medulla, where they enter the bloodstream through the medullary veins, adding to the lymphocytes seen in the peripheral blood and the lymphoid organs.

The thymus differs structurally from other lymphoid organs in that it does not have lymphatic vessels draining into it. It is not a filter like the lymph nodes, which are situated so that microorganisms and other antigens are exposed to their cells. The thymic lymphocytes are sealed off from the rest of the body by a continuous layer of epithelial (covering) cells that entirely surround the organ. While thus sequestered, the lymphocytes differentiate, or acquire the capabilities to perform specialized tasks. (It has been suggested that hormonal functions of the thymus aid in this differentiation.) Of these specialized lymphocytes, helper T cells work synergistically with the thymus-independent lymphocytes (B cells) to produce antibodies. Cytotoxic T cells directly attack invading microorganisms and foreign tissue, including organ transplants.

The functions of the thymus that have so far been observed relate chiefly to the newborn. Removal of the organ in the adult has little effect, but, when the thymus is removed in the newborn, T cells in the blood and lymphoid tissue are depleted, and failure of the immune system causes a gradually fatal wasting disease. The individual whose thymus has been removed at birth is less able to reject foreign-tissue grafts or to make antibodies to certain antigens. Moreover, certain parts of the white pulp of the spleen and lymph nodes are much reduced in size. These results demonstrate that the T cells produced in the thymus and transported to the lymphoid tissues are crucial elements in the development of immunity.

It is known that most of the lymphocytes that are produced in the thymic cortex die without leaving the organ. Since those T cells that do leave the thymus are equipped to react against foreign antigens, it is assumed that the thymus destroys lymphocytes that would engage in an autoimmune reaction—that is, would react against the individual’s own tissues.

During the involution, or shrinking, of the thymus, the cortex becomes thin. Lymphocytes disappear and are replaced by fat tissue from the partitions between the lobules. The process of involution is never complete, and the bits of thymus tissue that remain are probably sufficient to maintain its function.